Humanism in Music

An Effervescent Musical Environment: Italy in the Early 15th Century

Between the end of the 14th century and the first decades of the 15th century, Italy established itself on the European stage as one of the most advanced and innovative musical laboratories. Although the peninsula was politically fragmented, it proved to be culturally effervescent: it was precisely the Italian centers, through noble courts and great chapels (both cathedral and papal), that guided the crucial sonic and stylistic transition between the Middle Ages and the musical Renaissance.

Diplomacy of Prestige and the Circulation of Ideas

The great Signorie, such as the Sforza in Milan, the Este in Ferrara, the Malatesta in Romagna, the Montefeltro in Urbino, the Gonzaga in Mantua, and the Medici in Florence, as well as the protagonists of the Great Western Schism (popes and antipopes active between Rome, Bologna, Pisa, and Florence), invested massive resources in music. Music, in fact, was not mere entertainment but was considered an integral part of the diplomacy of prestige. In a historical paradox, it was precisely political instability that favored a continuous and capillary circulation of musicians, ideas, manuscripts, and styles. This ferment generated a sophisticated, highly experimental, and refined musical production. In this climate, the extraordinary aesthetic of Ars subtilior grew—a music of exceptional rhythmic and notational complexity that, while having Italian roots, thrived on international relations. At the same time, a new artistic philosophy was born, focusing on the sweetness of sound and the intelligibility of the text: it was the dawn of the early musical Renaissance.

🎧 Listen: Matteo da Perugia – Ne me chaut

Italian Masters of Modernity

Shaping this new and fundamental musical season were several Italian masters who distinguished themselves through their capacity for innovation. Among them stands Antonio Zacara da Teramo (1350/60–1413/16), a figure of true European stature: he was a singer and papal secretary between Rome and Bologna, proving to be both a political and musical protagonist of the Schism. His masses (Gloria and Credo) experimented with highly advanced techniques, such as using secular material in sacred contexts, effectively anticipating the Parody Mass. His ballades, often with satirical or polemical content, and his isorhythmic motets show a virtuosic writing style of clear international influence.

Theorists, Founders, and Pioneers

Alongside him worked Ugolino da Orvieto (c. 1380–1452), the most eminent musical intellectual of his time, active in Florence and Ferrara. As a theorist and composer, he was the author of the monumental Declaratio musicae disciplinae, in which he systematized the rule of the degree and defended the judgment of the ears, bringing medieval theory to meet the living practice of Italian counterpoint. In Milan, Matteo da Perugia († after 1416) was the first documented magister a cantu of the cathedral, founder of the musical chapel. A man of both court and Church, he was a highly refined composer who transformed Milan into a musical capital, a place where, not coincidentally, even Flemish masters would come to learn. Bartolomeo da Bologna (fl. 1405–1427), a Benedictine monk active in Ferrara and Bologna, was a pioneer of the Parody Mass alongside Zacara. Finally, Antonius Romanus (active 1400–1432), a singer in the prestigious chapel of St. Mark's in Venice, combined elegance and modernity in his celebratory motets for the doges (such as Ducalis sedes / Stirps Mocenigo), exerting a certain influence on the young Dufay.

Italy at the Center: The Legacy of Early Musical Humanism

This extraordinary creative season proves irrefutably that Italy, long before the era of Palestrina, was a driving force in the development of European polyphony. It is precisely on Italian soil that we find the birth of the modern Mass, the formalization of counterpoint, and the most advanced graphic and rhythmic experimentation on the continent, as well as a new aesthetic focus on the beauty of sound—a concept that would define the entire era of Humanism.

• Estense Codex (Modena, a.M.5.24): fundamental for Matteo da Perugia and northern Ars subtilior.
• Mancini Codex (Lucca): essential core of Zacara's secular production.
• Trent Codices: testify to the spread and continuity of this school in the Alpine and Central European regions.

Early 15th-century Italy was therefore not a musical periphery or province: it was at the center of European music. It is from here that a different story begins—the story of how our peninsula helped all of Europe become the Renaissance.

The Birth of Musical Humanism: Placing the Word at the Center

Musical Humanism emerged in Italy in the early decades of the 15th century, in the same places where masters like Zacara, Ugolino, Matteo, Bartolomeo, and Antonius Romanus were already active. It is precisely in this context that European polyphony underwent its most decisive transformation: a shift from Gothic intellectualism to the centrality of man and the word, a change directly inspired by Humanism. The complex medieval theoretical tradition was not rejected but reconverted to adhere to a new aesthetic ideal based on clarity, proportion, harmonic sweetness, and, above all, the expressiveness of the word. Counterpoint ceased to be a mere mathematical game and became a human discourse, capable of deeply moving the listener (the so-called ethos). It is here that the foundations of what humanists would define as ars perfecta were laid.

The "Word-Painting"

In this new vision, vocality is sovereign. Genres like the madrigal, the motet, and the mass became the primary testing grounds for the new musical poetics. Music began to imitate the text, illustrating it and literally sculpting it in sound. Thus, the first signs of the famous word-painting appeared, also known as "madrigalism"—an expressive technique that would set the standard for centuries.

🎧 Listen: Antonius Romanus – Gloria (La Reverdie)

Centers of Musical Power and Italian Influence

The great centers of musical Humanism formed an entirely Italian triangle, extending between Florence (the true cradle of Humanism), Rome (with the prestigious Papal and Sistine Chapels), and Venice (with the St. Mark's Chapel and the birth of music publishing), joined by Naples. The courts of Ferrara and Mantua, along with those of other major Italian cities, completed a highly competitive system where music became a true sonorous monument at the service of political power.

Italy "Humanizes" the Flemish Masters

Italian influence was such that even great Flemish masters, like Guillaume Dufay and Josquin des Prez, became "humanists" only after having been in Italy, coming into direct contact with Humanist culture and the new centrality of the word. For this reason, musical Humanism, just like in literature and philosophy, is an authentically Italian phenomenon that did not originate in Northern Europe.

The Renaissance: Music in Social Life

The term "Renaissance" defines the new artistic and intellectual civilization that, following Humanism, continued to flourish first in Italy and then in the rest of Europe between the mid-15th and mid-16th centuries. The word itself carries the idea of a "rebirth" of classical models, but also of an ideal of life centered on man and his abilities, in stark contrast to the theocentric vision of the Middle Ages. Applied to music, the term indicates production that embraces new aesthetic values: harmony, clarity, proportion, and the capacity to move the human soul.

Sacred and Secular Music

During the Renaissance, music accompanied social life in every setting: in churches, palaces, and both public and private spaces. The musical chapels of the great cathedrals, formed by the best professionals, met the need to celebrate solemn rites with the greatest pomp. In the secular context, the role of music was even broader. The rise of instrumental music, which borrowed forms and styles from vocal music, was particularly successful, as were dance and compositions for voices and instruments, considered essential in civil ceremonies, banquets, court festivals, and theatrical performances.

Antonio Zacara da Teramo: Music and Power in the Papal Courts

Antonio Zacara da Teramo (1350/60–1413/16) was a leading figure in European music at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. He was not only a composer and singer but also a papal secretary, one of the most active and original Italian musicians of the period. His career made him an absolute protagonist of the Western Schism. His production, often lively and bold in its texts, connects the virtuosic aesthetic of ars subtilior to the new Humanist sensitivity, introducing innovations that would directly influence the next generation of Flemish composers.

A Biography in the Halls of Power

Probably born in Teramo, Zacara appears in Roman documents in 1390 as a music master at the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia. By 1391, his career took a decisive turn: he became secretary to Pope Boniface IX, effectively entering the halls of power. He remained in service under subsequent popes Innocent VII and Gregory XII, experiencing the most turbulent chapter in the history of the Latin Church from the inside. His works reflect this link with power, often containing political references, allusions, and satires, so much so that some of his verses were judged "satanic" by detractors. In 1408, he left the papal chapel, an event to which the ballade Dime fortuna seems to refer openly. He then moved to Bologna, entering the chapel of Antipope John XXIII (1412–1413). His death is documented in 1416.

🎧 Listen: Antonio Zacara da Teramo – Ballade “Ferito già d’un amoroso dardo”

Zacara's Bold Style: From Ars Subtilior to the Parody Mass

Zacara's work, both sacred and secular, is vast and deeply innovative. His ballades, Glorias, Credos, and isorhythmic motets show an extremely advanced technique, characterized by pushed counterpoint, complex notation, great rhythmic freedom, and a marked theatrical spirit. His production shows two distinct phases: an early "Italian" phase, linked to the style of Landini and Jacopo da Bologna, and a second phase, after 1400, in which he consciously created an ars subtilior style with radical inventions. Masterpieces of this second period include the songs of the Mancini Codex, such as Sumite, karissimi and Deus deorum, Pluto, where the pagan pantheon erupts into music as a sophisticated and biting provocation.

Innovator of Liturgical Music

His liturgical music was no less innovative. He wrote expansive Glorias and Credos based on imitative sections and characterized by a theatrical and personal voice. In some cases, Zacara was a pioneer in using secular material as counterpoint within sacred pieces, a decisive anticipation of what would become the Renaissance Parody Mass. His works circulated widely, with manuscripts found in Italy, Poland, and even England. Certain traits of his writing clearly influenced Bartolomeo da Bologna and even the young Dufay, who certainly knew his models. Zacara was a fundamental bridge figure, capable of integrating music, politics, and satire, excelling in the most advanced counterpoint in Europe and heavily influencing future Flemish masters.

Ugolino da Orvieto: The Theorist between Forlì, Florence, and Ferrara

Ugolino da Orvieto (Ugolinus Urbevetanus), born in Forlì around 1380, was a central figure of early Italian musical Humanism. Although his surname indicates an origin from Orvieto, contemporary sources confirm that he grew up and resided in Forlì for most of his life. His career suggests a dual path of study in both music and law. Nearly all documents cite him as a cleric and canon, but his role as a musician is equally well-attested.

A Career between Popes and Courts

In the tumultuous period of the Great Western Schism, in 1413, he was among the papal singers in Rimini who swore allegiance to Pope Gregory XII. After likely attending the Council of Constance, he had a brief but significant post in 1417 as a singer at the Florence Cathedral. Returning to Forlì, he earned a solid reputation as a master of counterpoint. In 1429, he became a canon of the Ferrara Cathedral. Theories of a supposed political exile are not supported; it is much more likely that he voluntarily chose Ferrara, drawn by a flourishing musical context ideal for the teaching and practice of counterpoint. He spent the rest of his life in Ferrara, holding prestigious offices and being awarded the title of Doctor of Law. He died in January 1452.

The “Declaratio”: A Synthesis of Middle Ages and Renaissance

Ugolino's enduring fame is linked to his imposing treatise, the Declaratio musicae disciplinae, composed in Ferrara in the 1430s. This work is one of the theoretical pillars of 15th-century Europe, a fundamental bridge between medieval heritage and new Renaissance elaboration. Divided into five books modeled after Boethius's De institutione musica, the work ranges from the foundations of Gregorian chant (Book I) to counterpoint (Book II), from mensural notation (Book III) to numerical proportions (Book IV), and finally to philosophical speculation (Book V). The work enjoyed considerable success: even Franchino Gaffurio owned a copy.

The “Declaratio” as an Encyclopedia of Knowledge

In short, the Declaratio is not a simple manual, but a pivotal work of transition. Ugolino summarizes the entire medieval theoretical baggage and relaunches it, conceiving a total science of music. He proves to be not only an updated theorist but also a practical musician, capable of transforming ideas into real sound.

Great Innovations: The Ear, the Rule, and Tuning

Ugolino's most precious contribution lies in Book II of the Declaratio, dedicated to counterpoint. Here, he takes a revolutionary step: he proposes a synthesis between rigorous mathematical speculation and the living polyphonic practice of his time. Ugolino is among the first to justify contrapuntal norms not only with tradition but also through the “judgment of the ears” (aurium vero mediante), effectively opening up to the aesthetic judgment of the musician. He proudly claimed to have deduced his rules based "on the merit of proportions and the judgment of the ears."

From the “Rule of the Degree” to “Musica Ficta”

In his treatise, we find the first and most complete exposition of the rule of the degree, an Italian pedagogical tradition for constructing counterpoint. This proves the full maturity of Italian schools as early as the start of the 15th century. Ugolino also offers a fundamental contribution to musica ficta (the use of unwritten altered notes), devising the duplex manus (double hand), a diagram that expands the traditional Guidonian hand to systematically include sharps and flats. Finally, he was among the first to observe the practical necessity of tempering Pythagorean tuning, seeking "sweeter" and more consonant intervals of thirds and sixths, thus anticipating the harmonic sensitivity of the high Renaissance.

Matteo da Perugia, Founder of Musical Milan

Matteo da Perugia, born in the second half of the 14th century and died before 1418, was one of the most original composers of his time and, above all, the first documented "magister a cantu" of the Milan Cathedral. His role was absolutely pioneering: he took a cathedral that lacked a true musical chapel and transformed it into an active center of production and teaching, laying the foundations for the future tradition that would make Milan a great capital of European music.

The First Modern "Chapel Master"

His office was already that of a modern chapel master, with precise artistic and pedagogical responsibilities. His duties included conducting the chant, contrapuntal improvisation (known as “biscantor” or “discantor”), and the free training of three young singers, directly selected by the ecclesiastical authority.

An Innovator between Ars Subtilior and Humanism

Matteo da Perugia's style masterfully combines the elegance of the Italian Ars nova with the virtuosic and complex experimentation of ars subtilior. He was not a follower but a true innovator who led the transition toward Renaissance language. His career was also closely linked to the high spheres of ecclesiastical power: he was in the service of Pietro Filargis, Archbishop of Milan, whom he likely followed to the Council of Pisa when Filargis was elected Pope Alexander V in 1409. There, Matteo adapted some of his pieces to the needs of the Roman rite, becoming a striking example of the political role that music played in the height of the Western Schism.

The Milanese Laboratory

Almost all of his work (ballades, dances, canons, Glorias, Credos) is preserved in the precious Estense codex a.M.5.24. His music reveals a composer who mastered the most advanced techniques of his time, from complex notation to bold counterpoint, with a new attention to the word and vocal gesture, anticipating the expressive clarity of the next generation.

The New Conception of Music in Service of the Text

Matteo da Perugia mastered contrapuntal technique with absolute mastery, developing the procedures of his predecessors with new solutions. Among these, the inclusion of homorhythmic and chordal passages stood out, clearly influenced by the living practice of Italian popular forms widespread in the courts. But his greatest historical merit lies in his unprecedented attention to the expressive relationship between text and music.

Toward the Renaissance

Throughout his production, a growing care for the metric, poetic, and symbolic values of the words is noted, along with a constant commitment to transforming them into sound in a persuasive and intelligible way. It was precisely from this new relationship that the clarity of writing, formal proportion, and the lyricism of his vocal lines derived. For these reasons, Matteo is considered a decisive figure in the birth of the early Italian musical Renaissance, a model that deeply influenced the composers of the subsequent generation.

Bartolomeo da Bologna: The Italian Avant-garde of Ars Subtilior

Bartolomeo da Bologna (Bartholomeus de Bononia) was active between the end of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century and is one of the first Italian composers whose core works are securely attributed. Probably a native of Bologna, he spent part of his career in Ferrara at the d'Este court. He was a Benedictine monk and is documented as an organist and composer at the Ferrara Cathedral in 1407 and 1427. Various sources also suggest his employment in Bologna, in the chapel of Antipope John XXIII.

A Forgotten Italian Master

Bartolomeo is one of the very few Italian composers of that period whose works have reached us almost in their entirety. In those years, Italian courts employed many local musicians who are mostly forgotten today. His musical corpus, though small (seven three-voice pieces), is invaluable for understanding how “Italian” polyphony played a leading role in forming the most sophisticated style of the time, Ars Subtilior, which flourished precisely in the courts linked to the Western Schism, such as Bologna and Ferrara. His style, complex and refined, shows a mature mastery of the new sonic aesthetic of the 15th century.

Virtuosity and Innovation: The Birth of the Parody Mass

Bartolomeo's compositions testify to a clear detachment from the 14th-century tradition, presenting elaborate structures, lively rhythms, and a dynamism that retains a strong Italian identity, independent of the Ars nova from across the Alps. Pieces like Que pena maior… reach dazzling virtuosity in technique and notation, in line with the highest experimentation of Ars Subtilior. His Latin texts, often linked to the climate of the Western Schism, are modeled with the forms of the new Italian polyphony.

Pioneer of the “Parody Mass”

Bartolomeo's most revolutionary contribution is found in his two preserved Mass movements, a Gloria and a Credo. These are among the oldest known examples of the systematic use of the parody technique: polyphonic material taken from his secular compositions is incorporated and transformed for the sacred rite. It is an idea destined to become central throughout the Renaissance. In an era when foreign dominance was assumed, Bartolomeo proves that the musical avant-garde was produced in Italy, in the innovation laboratories of Ferrara and Bologna.

Antonius Romanus: The Italian Master of St. Mark's

Antonius Romanus (active from 1400 to 1432) is one of the most fascinating, yet underrated, figures of early 15th-century European music. Born probably in Rome but active also in dogal Venice, he represents the Italian music that sets the standard: he did not merely absorb and rework the innovations of the Ars nova but transmitted them directly to the future masters of the Renaissance.

Few Documents, Many Traces

Biographical documentation on him is scarce but of enormous value. Sources attest to him as a singer in the prestigious chapel of St. Mark's in Venice between 1420 and 1432. St. Mark's, at the time, was an international crossroads of diplomacy and art, where the greatest European musicians passed through. It was precisely in this environment that Romanus formed and radiated his style, based on clarity, proportion, and a counterpoint of absolute refinement.

Polyphony and Power: The Political Music of Romanus

Antonius's style is striking for its formal clarity, rhythmic daring, and expert counterpoint. His production that has reached us is predominantly sacred: six four-voice pieces, including two Glorias, a Credo, and three isorhythmic motets. Each of these pieces is firmly anchored to an event of great Italian politics: Ducalis sedes / Stirps Mocenigo is a praise to Doge Tommaso Mocenigo; Carminibus festos / O requies populi celebrates Doge Francesco Foscari; and Aurea flammigera is dedicated to Gianfrancesco Gonzaga. It is music that lives off power, splendor, and diplomatic relations: polyphony as an instrument of prestige for great Italian families.

A Bridge to the Renaissance

Romanus is a decisive figure because he represents the genetic phase of the musical Renaissance. His music acts as a bridge between complex medieval isorhythm and new Renaissance clarity. He is one of the great names who made Italy the teacher of Europe. While Northern Europe studied and imitated, Italy experimented, refined, and invented.